{"id":1328,"date":"2024-01-29T19:49:53","date_gmt":"2024-01-29T18:49:53","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/?page_id=1328"},"modified":"2024-01-29T19:53:09","modified_gmt":"2024-01-29T18:53:09","slug":"luxembourg","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/luxembourg\/","title":{"rendered":"Luxembourg"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
\"Luxembourg
Luxembourg Free Tour<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg Free Tour<\/a><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Information:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg<\/strong>, landlocked country<\/a> in northwestern Europe<\/a>. One of the world\u2019s smallest countries, it is bordered by Belgium<\/a> on the west and north, France<\/a> on the south, and Germany<\/a> on the northeast and east. Luxembourg has come under the control of many states and ruling houses in its long history, but it has been a separate, if not always autonomous<\/a>, political unit since the 10th century. The ancient Saxon<\/a> name of its capital city, Lucilinburhuc<\/a> (\u201cLittle Fortress\u201d), symbolized its strategic position as \u201cthe Gibraltar<\/a> of the north,\u201d astride a major military route linking Germanic<\/a> and Frankish territories.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Luxembourg\"\/<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg is a point of contact between the Germanic- and Romance-language communities<\/a> of Europe, and three languages are regularly employed in the grand duchy itself: Luxembourgish<\/a>, German, and French. The peoples of Luxembourg and their languages reflect the grand duchy\u2019s common interests and close historical relations with its neighbours. In the 20th century Luxembourg became a founding member of several international economic organizations. Perhaps most importantly, the grand duchy was an original member of the Benelux Economic Union<\/a> (1944), which linked its economic life with that of the Netherlands <\/a>and of Belgium<\/a> and would subsequently form the core of the European Economic Community<\/a> (EEC; ultimately succeeded by the European Union<\/a>).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Land<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Relief and soils<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\"Luxembourg\"\/<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Physical features of Luxembourg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

S\u00fbre River<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

S\u00fbre River on the border between Germany (left) and Luxembourg (right), near Weilerbach, Luxembourg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The northern third of Luxembourg, known as the Oesling<\/a> (\u00d6sling), comprises<\/a> a corner of the Ardennes Mountains, which lie mainly in southern Belgium. It is a plateau that averages 1,500 feet (450 metres) in elevation and is composed of schists and sandstones. This forested highland region is incised by the deep valleys of a river<\/a> network organized around the S\u00fbre<\/a> (or Sauer) River, which runs eastward through north-central Luxembourg before joining the Moselle<\/a> (or Mosel) River on the border with Germany. The Oesling\u2019s forested hills and valleys support the ruins of numerous castles, which are a major attraction for the region\u2019s many tourists. The fertility of the relatively thin mountain soils of the region was greatly improved with the introduction in the 1890s of a basic-slag fertilizer, which is obtained as a by-product of the grand duchy\u2019s steel<\/a> industry.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg city: Alzette River<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Alzette River winding through the old quarter of Luxembourg city.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The southern two-thirds of Luxembourg is known as the Bon Pays, or Gutland (French and German: \u201cGood Land\u201d). This region has a more-varied topography<\/a> and an average elevation of 800 feet (about 245 metres). The Bon Pays is much more densely populated than the Oesling and contains the capital city, Luxembourg, as well as smaller industrial cities such as Esch-sur-Alzette<\/a>. In the centre of the Bon Pays, the valley<\/a> of the northward-flowing Alzette River forms an axis around which the country\u2019s<\/a> economic life is organized. Luxembourg city lies along the Alzette, which joins the S\u00fbre farther north. Britannica QuizMatch the Country with Its Hemisphere Quiz<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the east-central part of the Bon Pays lies a great beech forest, the M\u00fcllerthal, as well as a sandstone<\/a> area featuring an attractive ruiniform topography. The country\u2019s eastern border with Germany is formed (successively from north to south) by the Our, S\u00fbre, and Moselle rivers. The slopes of the Moselle River valley, carved in chalk and calcareous clay, are covered with vineyards and receive a substantial amount of sunshine, which has earned the area the name \u201cLittle Riviera.\u201d Besides vineyards, the fertile soils of the Moselle<\/a> and lower S\u00fbre valleys also support rich pasturelands. Luxembourg\u2019s former iron mines are located in the extreme southwest, along the duchy\u2019s border with France.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Climate<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg has a mild climate with considerable precipitation. The north is slightly colder and more humid than the south. The mean temperatures in Luxembourg city range from the mid-30s F (about 0.7 \u00b0C) in January to the low 60s F (about 17 \u00b0C) in July, but in the Oesling both extremes are slightly lower. The Oesling receives more precipitation than the Bon Pays, but the greatest amount, about 40 inches (1,000 mm), and the least, about 27 inches (about 685 mm), fall in the southwest and southeast, respectively. The sheltered valley of the Moselle River benefits from a gentler and sunnier climate than does the rest of the duchy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

People<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Ethnic groups, languages, and religion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg has been one of the historic crossroads of Europe, and myriad<\/a> peoples have left their bloodlines as well as their cultural imprints on the grand duchy. The Celts, the Belgic peoples known as the Treveri, the Ligurians and Romans from Italy<\/a>, and especially the Franks were most influential. The language spoken by Luxembourg\u2019s native inhabitants is Luxembourgish<\/a>, or L\u00ebtzebuergesch, a Moselle-Franconian dialect<\/a> of German that has been enriched by many French words and phrases. Luxembourgish is the national language; German and French are both languages of administration. There is a strong sense of national identity among Luxembourgers despite the prevalence of foreign influences. The great majority of Luxembourg\u2019s native citizens are Roman Catholic, with a small number of Protestants (mainly Lutherans), Jews, and Muslims.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg has a high proportion of foreigners living within its borders. This is chiefly the result of an extremely low birth rate<\/a> among native Luxembourgers, which has led to a chronic labour shortage. Nearly half of the total population is of foreign birth and consists mainly of Portuguese, French, Italians, Belgians, and Germans. Among the foreign workers are many in the iron and steel industry, and numerous others work in foreign firms and international organizations located in the capital.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

https:\/\/e.infogram.com\/_\/SMQptbPxgNyz5v37K6U7?parent_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FLuxembourg&src=embed#async_embed<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Settlement patterns<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Oesling, Luxembourg<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The town of Clervaux, in the Oesling, Luxembourg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Northern Luxembourg is sparsely populated compared with the heavily urbanized and industrialized south. The north\u2019s rural population is clustered<\/a> in villages of thick-set stone houses with slate roofs. The urban network in the south is dominated by the capital city, Luxembourg<\/a>, which rises in tiers, with the upper (and older) section of the city separated from the lower-lying suburbs by the gorges of the Alzette and Petrusse rivers. A newer quarter housing many European organizations nestles in a picturesque site carved into the river valley\u2019s sandstone cliffs. The second largest city in Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette<\/a>, lies in the extreme southwest and is a traditional iron- and steel-making centre. Its growth, like that of the neighbouring iron and steel centres of P\u00e9tange, Differdange, and Dudelange, has slowed since the shrinkage of those industries in western Europe in the late 20th century. The remainder of the country\u2019s population lives in towns and villages of relatively small size. Many of Luxembourg\u2019s villages date from ancient Celtic and Roman times or originated in Germanic and Frankish villages after about 400 ce. In addition, many medieval<\/a> castle<\/a> villages continue to thrive, centuries after the castles themselves fell into ruin.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Demographic trends<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

The 20th century witnessed a continual internal migration away from the countryside to urban areas, and the growth of Luxembourg\u2019s service sector<\/a> at the expense of heavy industry has only accelerated this trend. Luxembourg city in particular continues to attract migrants from the rest of the country<\/a> because of its vibrant banking and finance sector. The increasing concentration of the population in the southwest has led the government to try to locate some industries in rural areas. About three-fourths of Luxembourg\u2019s workforce is engaged in trade, government, and other service occupations, while about one-fifth of the workforce is employed in industry and construction, and the small remainder works in agriculture and other pursuits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Economy<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg\u2019s economy is notable for its close connections with the rest of Europe<\/a>, since Luxembourg itself is too small to create a self-sustaining internal market<\/a>. Luxembourg\u2019s prosperity<\/a> was originally based on the iron and steel industry, which in the 1960s represented as much as 80 percent of the total value of exports. By the late 20th century, however, the country\u2019s economic vigour stemmed chiefly from its involvement in international banking and financial services and in such noncommercial activities as hosting intra-European political activities. In the 21st century, information technology and electronic commerce<\/a> also became important components of Luxembourg\u2019s economy. The result of the country\u2019s adaptability and cosmopolitanism is a very high standard of living; the Luxembourgers rank among the world\u2019s leaders in standard of living<\/a> and per capita income.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Agriculture<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The agricultural resources of Luxembourg are quite modest. With the exception of livestock products, surpluses<\/a> are scarce, and marginal soils in many parts of the country hinder abundant harvests. Most farming is mixed and includes both animal raising and gardening. Livestock and their by-products account for the bulk of agricultural production, cattle raising having gained in importance at the expense of pig and sheep raising. Wheat, barley, and other cereal grains are the next most important products, followed by root vegetables. About one-half of the country\u2019s farms are smaller than 200 acres (50 hectares). The vineyards along the Moselle<\/a> River produce some excellent wines.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Resources and power<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg\u2019s natural resources are far from abundant. In addition to its agriculture not being particularly prosperous, its once copious<\/a> iron ore deposits had been exhausted by the 1980s. With the exception of water and timber, there are no energy resources. Indeed, Luxembourg has almost nothing that predisposes it to agricultural or industrial development. The roots of its economic growth<\/a> lie in its use of capital and in the adaptability and ingenuity of its workforce rather than in natural resources.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg meets most of its energy needs with imports. Its only domestic source of power is the hydroelectricity<\/a> obtained from several dams on its rivers, which meets about one-fifth of the country\u2019s energy needs. Nuclear power constitutes<\/a> a negligible portion of the country\u2019s power.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Manufacturing and trade<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The production and export of iron<\/a> and steel<\/a> have long played major roles in Luxembourg\u2019s economy. Steel production was originally based on exploitation of the iron ore deposits extending from Lorraine<\/a> into the southwestern corner of the grand duchy. This ore has a high phosphorus content, however, and it was not until the introduction of the basic Bessemer process<\/a> in 1879 that the ore could be used for making steel. Thereafter, Luxembourg\u2019s metallurgical industries grew and flourished. During the 1970s, however, the worldwide demand for steel slumped, causing the steel industry\u2019s portion of Luxembourg\u2019s gross domestic product<\/a> to fall. In response to this crisis, the government took measures aimed at helping the steel industry increase efficiency<\/a> and maintain profitability. By the late 1970s ARBED (Aci\u00e9ries R\u00e9unies de Burbach-Eich-Dudelange) SA was Luxembourg\u2019s only remaining steelmaker. In 2001 ARBED merged with the Spanish company Aceralia and the French company Usinor to form Arcelor, which subsequently joined Mittal to create ArcelorMittal<\/a>, the world\u2019s largest steel company at the time of its formation in 2006. Since the end of the 20th century, Luxembourg\u2019s economy has been increasingly dependent on foreign-owned factories and other multinational companies operating in the country. These factories primarily produce motor-vehicle tires, chemicals, and fabricated metals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Court of Justice of the European Union<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Headquarters of the Court of Justice of the European Union, Luxembourg.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

By the late 20th century Luxembourg had become an important international financial centre, and in the early 21st century it remained home to scores of banks, most of which were foreign-owned. Those banks operated in a climate of general secrecy permitted by the country\u2019s banking laws, which had come under criticism<\/a> from some other countries. Luxembourg owes its prominent position in the world of finance to a number of other factors, perhaps chief of which is the government\u2019s own farsighted policies. In 1929 the government began to encourage the registering in Luxembourg of holding companies; those large corporations can control a number of subsidiary companies but are heavily taxed in many countries of the world. The liberal tax climate produced by the new policy led many industrial and financial corporations to maintain offices, often as their European headquarters, in Luxembourg city.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg city is also one of the capitals of the European Union<\/a> (EU) and, as such, is home to the European Court of Justice<\/a>; the European Investment Bank, which enjoys decision-making independence within the EU\u2019s institutional system; and several major EU administrative offices. Most of the grand duchy\u2019s merchandise<\/a> trade takes place with EU countries, especially with its three neighbours\u2014Germany, Belgium<\/a>, and France<\/a>, which together receive more than half of Luxembourg\u2019s exports and provide some three-quarters of its imports.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Transportation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg\u2019s internal road system is not extensive but is well maintained, and several highways link the country with its neighbours. A port at Mertert on the canalized Moselle River connects the grand duchy with the Rhine<\/a> waterway system and provides it with an avenue for the international movement of goods. The government has operated the nation\u2019s railroads since World War II<\/a>. They are modern, electrified, and mostly double-tracked. A major portion of international transportation<\/a> to and from Luxembourg is by train, and the country is connected with its neighbours by a large number of lines. Findel Airport outside Luxembourg city has become a major European air terminal<\/a> served by the lines of many countries. Luxair is the national airline<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Communications of Luxembourg<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg\u2019s advanced telecommunications system provides it with close links both to EU<\/a> countries and to other financial partners around the world, including Japan<\/a> and the United States<\/a>. The government operates the postal service in Luxembourg. RTL (Radio-Television-Luxembourg) Group SA, a privately owned broadcasting company that has radio and television outlets in a number of European countries, is also a satellite operator with a plethora<\/a> of channels that reach as far as Great Britain and Scandinavia. RTL is arguably Europe\u2019s<\/a> most important private radio and television broadcaster.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Government and society<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg city: Grand Ducal Palace<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Grand Ducal Palace, in the old quarter of Luxembourg city.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The grand duchy is a constitutional monarchy<\/a> with hereditary succession. Executive power authority lies with the grand duke<\/a>, who appoints the prime minister<\/a>. The powers of the grand duke are primarily formal, however. Actual executive power lies with the prime minister and his ministerial council, or cabinet<\/a>, who are responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. The members of this legislative assembly are elected by popular vote to five-year terms. Voting by all adult citizens, begun in 1919, is compulsory<\/a>. Legislative elections have usually given rise to coalition governments formed alternatively by two of the three major parties: the Christian Social People\u2019s Party (Chr\u00ebschtlech Sozial Vollekspartei; CSV), the Socialist Workers\u2019 Party<\/a> of Luxembourg (L\u00ebtzebuergesch Sozialistesch Arbechterpartei; LSAP), and the Democratic Party (DP). In addition, a Council of State named by the grand duke functions as an advisory body. It is consulted on all draft legislation, advises the grand duke on administrative affairs, and serves as a supreme court in case of administrative disputes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

There are also three advisory bodies that are consulted before the passage of legislation affecting their particular area of the national life. The first of these consists of six confederations, three of which represent employers (commerce, guilds, and farmers) and three of which represent labour (workers, private employees, and civil servants). The second advisory group, the Social and Economic Council, has become a major committee for the examination of all projects. The third, the Immigration Council, advises the government on problems involving housing and the political rights of immigrants.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Justice<\/a> is in the hands of magistrates appointed for life by the grand duke, the final appeal lying with the Superior Court of Justice. In the criminal court of assizes, six magistrates sit as jury as well as judge. Britannica QuizWhich Country Is Larger By Population? Quiz<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization<\/a> (NATO) and has a small volunteer army. There is also a small paramilitary gendarmerie.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg is divided administratively into three districts, each of which is headed by a commissioner appointed by the central government. Each district is in turn divided into cantons and subdivided into communes, or municipalities. Public works, health, and education are among the responsibilities of the communes, each of which is governed by an elected council and a mayor. These bodies also maintain liaison<\/a> with the central government and act as its local agents.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Health and welfare<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

After World War I<\/a> a broad system of social security<\/a> and health services was introduced in Luxembourg to ensure maximum welfare protection to each citizen. Sickness benefits, in which patients pay only a small part of medical costs, as well as birth, family, and unemployment payments, are included in the plans. Housing conditions are generally comparable to those found in other western European countries. There has been some difficulty, however, in assimilating<\/a> the many thousands of foreign workers and their families.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Education<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Education is compulsory from age 6 to 15. The educational system offers a mix of primary and secondary schools run by state and local governments and by religious institutions. Considerable emphasis is laid on language studies. The principal language of instruction is Luxembourgish; however, German is introduced in the first year, and French is added in the second year. German remains the focus throughout primary school<\/a> and in technical education<\/a>, while in secondary classical education the emphasis is on French. Until the early 21st century there were no four-year universities in the grand duchy, so many young Luxembourgers have historically obtained their higher education<\/a> abroad. In 2003 the University of Luxembourg was founded in Luxembourg city and now provides undergraduate and graduate degrees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cultural life<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The major cultural institution of Luxembourg is the Grand Ducal Institute, which has sections devoted to history, science, medicine, languages and folklore, arts and literature, and moral<\/a> and political sciences. It functions as an active promoter of the arts, humanities, and general culture<\/a> rather than as a conservator. The Luxembourg National Museum<\/a> (formally the National Museum of History<\/a> and Art) surveys fine arts and industrial arts as well as the history of Luxembourg<\/a>. Other prominent museums include the Villa Vauban\u2013Museum of the Art of the City of Luxembourg, MUDAM Luxembourg (Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art), the Museum of the History of the City of Luxembourg, and the National Museum of Natural History. There is considerable public use of the National Library, the National Archives, and the Music Conservatory of the City of Luxembourg. The grand duchy also maintains cultural agreements with several European and other nations that provide it with the finest in the musical and theatrical arts. The Philharmonic Orchestra of Luxembourg (which was known as the Grand Orchestra of Radiotelevision Luxembourg before it came under government administration<\/a> in 1996) is considered outstanding. There is an extensive market in Luxembourg city for works of painting and sculpture, both traditional and modern. The grand duchy\u2019s architectural heritage extends through practically the entire span of Europe\u2019s recorded history, from ancient Gallo-Roman villas to medieval<\/a> castles, Gothic and Baroque churches, and contemporary buildings.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A small publishing industry exists, printing literary works in French, German, and Luxembourgish. The grand duchy\u2019s newspapers express diverse<\/a> political points of view\u2014conservative, liberal, socialist, and communist. Luxembourg\u2019s influence is felt far beyond its borders through the medium of the RTL (Radio-Television-Luxembourg<\/a>) Group. The group\u2019s early English-language radio service, Radio Luxembourg<\/a>, played an important role in the history of rock music<\/a> when it operated as Europe\u2019s premier broadcaster of rhythm and blues<\/a> and early rock and roll<\/a> from the United States in the 1950s.Victor J.P. Biel<\/a>Jean-Pierre Erpelding<\/a>Jean Marie Gehring<\/a>The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

History<\/a> of Luxembourg<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Ancient and medieval periods<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The earliest human remains found in present-day Luxembourg date from about 5140 bce, but little is known about the people who first populated the area. Two Belgic tribes, the Treveri<\/a> and Mediomatrici, inhabited the country<\/a> from about 450 bce until the Roman conquest<\/a> of 53 bce. The occupation of the country by the Franks<\/a> in the 5th century ce marked the beginning of the Middle Ages in the locality. St. Willibrord<\/a> played a very important role in the area\u2019s Christianization in the late 7th century. He founded the Benedictine abbey of Echternach, which became an important cultural centre for the region.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The area successively formed part of the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia<\/a>, of the Holy Roman Empire<\/a> under Charlemagne<\/a> and Louis I<\/a> (the Pious), and then of the kingdom of Lotharingia<\/a>. Luxembourg became an independent entity in 963, when Siegfried, count de Ardennes<\/a>, exchanged his lands for a small but strategically placed Roman castle<\/a> lying along the Alzette River. This castle became the cradle of Luxembourg, whose name is itself derived from that of the castle, Lucilinburhuc<\/a> (\u201cLittle Fortress\u201d). Siegfried\u2019s successors enlarged their possessions by conquests, treaties, marriages, and inheritances. About 1060 Conrad, a descendant of Siegfried, became the first to take the title of count of Luxembourg. Conrad\u2019s great-granddaughter, Countess Ermesinde, was a notable ruler whose great-grandson, Henry IV, became Holy Roman emperor<\/a> as Henry VII<\/a> in 1308. This Luxembourg dynasty<\/a> was continued on the imperial throne in the persons of Charles IV<\/a>, Wenceslas<\/a>, and Sigismund<\/a>. In 1354 the emperor Charles IV made the county a duchy. In 1443 Elizabeth of G\u00f6rlitz, duchess of Luxembourg and niece of the Holy Roman emperor Sigismund, was forced to cede the duchy to Philip III<\/a> (the Good), duke of Burgundy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Habsburg<\/a> and French domination<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Along with the rest of the Burgundian inheritance, the duchy of Luxembourg passed to the Habsburgs in 1477. The division of the Habsburg territories in 1555\u201356 following Emperor Charles V\u2019s abdication put the duchy in the possession of the Spanish Habsburgs. Luxembourg took no part in the revolt of the Low Countries<\/a> against Philip II<\/a> of Spain; it was to remain with what is now Belgium<\/a> as part of the Spanish Netherlands<\/a>. (For more specific information about the period, see<\/em> Netherlands<\/a>.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The duchy was able to remain aloof from the Thirty Years\u2019 War<\/a> (1618\u201348) for a time, but in 1635, when France<\/a> became involved, a period of disaster began in Luxembourg, which was wracked by war, famine, and epidemics<\/a>. Moreover, the war did not end for Luxembourg with the Peace of Westphalia<\/a> in 1648 but only with the Treaty of the Pyrenees<\/a> in 1659. In 1679 France under Louis XIV<\/a> began to conquer parts of the duchy, and in 1684 the conquest was completed with the capture of Luxembourg city. France restored Luxembourg to Spain<\/a> in 1697, however, under the terms of the Treaties of Rijswijk. At the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession<\/a>, by the treaties of Utrecht<\/a> and Rastatt (1713\u201314), Luxembourg (along with Belgium) passed from the Spanish to the Austrian Habsburgs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1795, six years after the beginning of the French Revolution<\/a>, Luxembourg came under the rule of the French again. The old duchy was divided among three d\u00e9partements<\/em>, the constitution of the Directory was imposed, and a modern state bureaucracy<\/a> was introduced. The Luxembourg peasantry was hostile toward the French government\u2019s anticlerical measures, however, and the introduction of compulsory military service<\/a> in France in 1798 provoked a rebellion, the Kl\u00ebppelkrich (Kl\u00f6ppelkrieg), in Luxembourg that was brutally suppressed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Personal union with the Netherlands<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

French domination ended with the fall of Napoleon<\/a> in 1814, and the allied powers decided the future of Luxembourg at the Congress of Vienna<\/a> in 1815. The congress raised Luxembourg to the status of a grand duchy and gave it to William I<\/a>, prince of Orange-Nassau and king of the Netherlands. William obtained a Luxembourg that was considerably diminished, since those of its districts lying east of the Our, S\u00fbre, and Moselle rivers had been ceded to Prussia. The status of the grand duchy during this period was complex: Luxembourg had the legal position of an independent state and was united with the Netherlands only because it was a personal possession of William I. But Luxembourg was also included within the German Confederation<\/a>, and a Prussian military garrison was housed in the capital city.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The standard of living<\/a> of Luxembourg\u2019s citizens deteriorated during this period. Under Austrian<\/a> rule, and especially from 1735 on, the duchy had experienced an economic expansion. From 1816\u201317 on, however, William I ignored the duchy\u2019s sovereignty<\/a>, treating Luxembourg as a conquered country and subjecting it to heavy taxes. Consequently, it was not surprising that Luxembourg supported the Belgian revolution against William in 1830, and, in October of that year, the Belgian government announced that the grand duchy was a part of Belgium, while William still claimed the duchy as his own. In 1831 the great powers<\/a> (France, Britain<\/a>, Prussia, Russia<\/a>, and Austria) decided that Luxembourg had to remain in William I\u2019s possession and form part of the German Confederation. Moreover, the great powers allotted<\/a> the French-speaking part of the duchy to Belgium (in which it became a province called Luxembourg), while William I was allowed to retain the Luxembourgish-speaking part. Belgium accepted this arrangement but William I rejected it, only to subsequently accede to the arrangement in 1839. From that year until 1867, the duchy was administered autonomously from the Netherlands.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Independent Luxembourg<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

William I negotiated a customs union<\/a> for Luxembourg with Prussia, and his successor, William II<\/a>, ratified this treaty in 1842. Against its own will, Luxembourg had thus entered into the Prussian-led Zollverein<\/a> (\u201cCustoms Union\u201d), but the grand duchy soon realized the advantages of this economic union. Luxembourg subsequently developed from an agricultural country<\/a> into an industrial one. Its road network was extended and improved, and two railway companies were begun that formed the basis for the national railway<\/a> company founded in 1946.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The restricted constitution that William II enacted for Luxembourg in 1841 did not meet the political expectations of its citizens. The Revolution of 1848<\/a> in Paris<\/a> had its influence on the grand duchy, and William II that year enacted a new and more liberal constitution, which was in turn replaced by another constitution in 1856. In 1866 the German Confederation<\/a> was dissolved, and Luxembourg became an entirely sovereign<\/a> nation, though the Prussian garrison remained in the capital. Napoleon III<\/a> of France<\/a> then tried to purchase the grand duchy from William III<\/a>. The two rulers had already agreed on the sum of five million florins when William III backed out because the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck<\/a>, disapproved of the sale. The great powers soon came to a compromise (London<\/a>; May 11, 1867): Prussia had to withdraw its garrison from the capital, the fort would be dismantled, and Luxembourg would become an independent nation. The grand duchy\u2019s perpetual neutrality was guaranteed by the great powers, and its sovereignty<\/a> was vested in the house of Nassau.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Charlotte, grand duchess of Luxembourg<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Charlotte, grand duchess of Luxembourg (1919\u201364).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

On the death of William III of the Netherlands in 1890 without a male heir, the grand duchy passed to Adolf<\/a>, duke of Nassau (died 1905), who was succeeded by his son William (died 1912). Neither Adolf nor William interfered much in Luxembourg\u2019s government, but William\u2019s daughter, the grand duchess Marie Ad\u00e9la\u00efde, was more assertive<\/a> and eventually became highly unpopular with the people. In 1914 the neutrality of Luxembourg was violated by Germany<\/a>, which occupied the grand duchy until the Armistice of 1918. During the war, Marie Ad\u00e9la\u00efde had tolerated the illegal German occupation, for which she was criticized by the Allied powers<\/a> after the liberation. Marie Ad\u00e9la\u00efde was forced to abdicate<\/a> in favour of her sister Charlotte<\/a> in 1919. In a referendum a few months later, the public voted overwhelmingly against the establishment of a republic and in favour of retaining Charlotte as grand duchess.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In December 1918 the Allied powers had forced Luxembourg to put an end to its customs union with Germany. For the grand duchy this meant the loss of its best customer (for cast iron<\/a> and steel) as well as its main supplier of coal. Luxembourg urgently needed a new economic partner, and, though the people preferred an economic union with France, the grand duchy was forced to negotiate with Belgium<\/a>, since France declared itself uninterested in such a union. The Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) was established in 1921 and provided for a customs and monetary union<\/a> between the two countries. The economic climate in Luxembourg remained rather dreary during the interwar period, though.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In May 1940 the German army invaded and occupied Luxembourg for the second time. However, this time the government refused to collaborate<\/a> and, together with the grand duchess, went into exile. Luxembourg was placed under German rule, and the French language<\/a> was banned.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

After Luxembourg\u2019s liberation in September 1944, it took part in the new international organizations being formed by the victorious Allies, including the United Nations<\/a>. Luxembourg also joined the new Benelux Economic Union<\/a> (1944) formed between Belgium, the Netherlands, and itself. By taking part in the Brussels Treaty<\/a> of 1948 and in the formation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization<\/a> (NATO) in 1949, Luxembourg abandoned its perpetual neutrality. The country improved its economic situation by obtaining a sound position within the European Coal and Steel Community<\/a> (1952) and within the European Economic Community<\/a> (1957; later succeeded by the European Union<\/a>). Prince Jean, Charlotte\u2019s son, was installed as lieutenant-repr\u00e9sentant<\/em> of Charlotte in 1961, and he inherited<\/a> the throne in 1964 upon his mother\u2019s abdication.V\u00e9ronique Lambert<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Jean-Claude Juncker<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Prime Minister Jean-Claude Juncker of Luxembourg, 2009.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

When the European Union<\/a> (EU) was created in 1993, Luxembourg assumed an active role. EU administrative offices were sited in the country, and Luxembourgers such as Prime Ministers Jacques Santer<\/a> and Jean-Claude Juncker<\/a> played especially prominent roles in the EU. In 1995, when Santer, who had served as prime minister<\/a> since 1984, stepped down from that office to become the president of the European Commission<\/a>, he was replaced by Juncker. As a result of the legislative elections of 1999, Juncker remained as prime minister, heading a coalition government<\/a> made up of his Christian Social People\u2019s Party<\/a> (Chr\u00ebschtlech Sozial Vollekspartei; CSV) and the Democratic Party that brought to an end 15 years of coalition rule by the CSV and the Socialist Workers\u2019 Party of Luxembourg (L\u00ebtzebuergesch Sozialistesch Arbechterpartei; LSAP). In 2000, at age 79, Grand Duke Jean formally abdicated<\/a> as chief of state<\/a> and was replaced by his son, Crown Prince Henri, who in 2001 became the first member of the Luxembourgian royal family to open a session of parliament since 1877.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

At the time the EU was formed, noncitizens made up more than half of the workforce of Luxembourg. By the end of the 20th century, the country had gained a reputation as a centre for private banking and financial services (particularly mutual fund<\/a> investments), media and satellite broadcasting, and electronic commerce<\/a>. The economy remained robust<\/a> into the 21st century, and for a period Luxembourg claimed the world\u2019s highest standard of living<\/a> (highest gross domestic product<\/a> per capita). At least some of this success was the result of the stability provided by the CSV-LSAP coalition, which was returned to office following elections in 2004 and 2009, with Juncker remaining as prime minister throughout. Indeed, Luxembourg survived the world financial downturn that began in 2008 and the subsequent euro-zone debt crisis<\/a> much better than many of its European neighbours. The country remained closely associated with the response to that crisis, however, as Juncker served as head of the Eurogroup<\/a>\u2014an advisory body responsible for managing the single currency<\/a> of the euro<\/a> zone\u2014from 2005 to 2013.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Luxembourg\u2019s ruling coalition<\/a> was toppled in July 2013 when the LSAP withdrew its support for Juncker in the wake of a scandal involving illegal activity by the country\u2019s intelligence service. Snap elections were held in October 2013, and the CSV won the largest share of the vote. It fell short of a majority, however, and the LSAP was able to form a ruling coalition with the Democratic Party (Demokratesch Partei; DP) and the Greens<\/a>. DP leader Xavier Bettel was sworn in as prime minister in December 2013.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Luxembourg Free Tour Information: Luxembourg, landlocked country in northwestern Europe. One of the world\u2019s smallest countries, it is bordered by Belgium on the west and north, France on the south, and Germany on the northeast and east. Luxembourg has come under the control of many states and ruling houses in its long history, but it … <\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1328","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry","latest_post"],"translation":{"provider":"WPGlobus","version":"3.0.2","language":"es","enabled_languages":["en","es","zh","it"],"languages":{"en":{"title":true,"content":true,"excerpt":false},"es":{"title":false,"content":false,"excerpt":false},"zh":{"title":false,"content":false,"excerpt":false},"it":{"title":false,"content":false,"excerpt":false}}},"yoast_head":"\nLuxembourg - Best Free Tour<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"es_ES\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Luxembourg - Best Free Tour\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Best Free Tour\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2024-01-29T18:53:09+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/01\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Est. reading time\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"27 minutes\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\\\/\\\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/\",\"name\":\"Luxembourg - Best Free Tour\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2024\\\/01\\\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2024-01-29T18:49:53+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2024-01-29T18:53:09+00:00\",\"breadcrumb\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/#breadcrumb\"},\"inLanguage\":\"es-ES\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"es-ES\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2024\\\/01\\\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2024\\\/01\\\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg\"},{\"@type\":\"BreadcrumbList\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/luxembourg\\\/#breadcrumb\",\"itemListElement\":[{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":1,\"name\":\"Home\",\"item\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/\"},{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":2,\"name\":\"Luxembourg\"}]},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/#website\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/\",\"name\":\"Best Free Tour\",\"description\":\"walking tour: Florence, Rome, Milan, Venice, Naples\",\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/#organization\"},\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"es-ES\"},{\"@type\":\"Organization\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/#organization\",\"name\":\"Best Free Tour\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/\",\"logo\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"es-ES\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/#\\\/schema\\\/logo\\\/image\\\/\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2025\\\/03\\\/cropped-best-free-tour-logo-.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/wp-content\\\/uploads\\\/2025\\\/03\\\/cropped-best-free-tour-logo-.jpg\",\"width\":157,\"height\":145,\"caption\":\"Best Free Tour\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/bestfreetour.com\\\/#\\\/schema\\\/logo\\\/image\\\/\"}}]}<\/script>\n<!-- \/ Yoast SEO Premium plugin. -->","yoast_head_json":{"title":"Luxembourg - Best Free Tour","robots":{"index":"index","follow":"follow","max-snippet":"max-snippet:-1","max-image-preview":"max-image-preview:large","max-video-preview":"max-video-preview:-1"},"canonical":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/","og_locale":"es_ES","og_type":"article","og_title":"Luxembourg - Best Free Tour","og_url":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/","og_site_name":"Best Free Tour","article_modified_time":"2024-01-29T18:53:09+00:00","og_image":[{"url":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/01\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg","type":"","width":"","height":""}],"twitter_card":"summary_large_image","twitter_misc":{"Est. reading time":"27 minutes"},"schema":{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/","url":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/","name":"Luxembourg - Best Free Tour","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/01\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg","datePublished":"2024-01-29T18:49:53+00:00","dateModified":"2024-01-29T18:53:09+00:00","breadcrumb":{"@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"es-ES","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/"]}]},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"es-ES","@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/#primaryimage","url":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/01\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg","contentUrl":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/01\/Luxembourg-pexels-gintare-kairaityte-14849557-1024x768.jpg"},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/luxembourg\/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Home","item":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Luxembourg"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/#website","url":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/","name":"Best Free Tour","description":"walking tour: Florence, Rome, Milan, Venice, Naples","publisher":{"@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/#organization"},"potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"es-ES"},{"@type":"Organization","@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/#organization","name":"Best Free Tour","url":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"es-ES","@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/","url":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/cropped-best-free-tour-logo-.jpg","contentUrl":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2025\/03\/cropped-best-free-tour-logo-.jpg","width":157,"height":145,"caption":"Best Free Tour"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/"}}]}},"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1328","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1328"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1328\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1332,"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1328\/revisions\/1332"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1328"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}