{"id":1546,"date":"2024-02-17T05:16:08","date_gmt":"2024-02-17T04:16:08","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/?page_id=1546"},"modified":"2024-02-17T05:16:10","modified_gmt":"2024-02-17T04:16:10","slug":"russia","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/bestfreetour.com\/zh\/russia\/","title":{"rendered":"Russia"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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Russia<\/strong>, country<\/a> that stretches over a vast expanse of eastern Europe<\/a> and northern Asia<\/a>. Once the preeminent republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics<\/a> (U.S.S.R.; commonly known as the Soviet Union<\/a>), Russia became an independent country after the dissolution of the Soviet Union<\/a> in December 1991.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Russia\"\/<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Russia<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia is a land of superlatives. By far the world\u2019s largest country, it covers nearly twice the territory of Canada<\/a>, the second largest. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and the eastern third of Europe, spanning 11 time zones<\/a> and incorporating a great range of environments<\/a> and landforms, from deserts to semiarid steppes to deep forests and Arctic<\/a> tundra<\/a>. Russia contains Europe\u2019s longest river, the Volga<\/a>, and its largest lake, Ladoga<\/a>. Russia also is home to the world\u2019s deepest lake, Baikal<\/a>, and the country recorded the world\u2019s lowest temperature outside the North<\/a> and South<\/a> poles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

St. Petersburg<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

St. Petersburg, Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ, St. Petersburg, Russia<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Cathedral of the Resurrection of Christ (commonly known as the Church of the Savior on Spilled Blood) is illuminated at night in St. Petersburg, Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The inhabitants of Russia are quite diverse<\/a>. Most are ethnic Russians, but there also are more than 120 other ethnic groups present, speaking many languages and following disparate<\/a> religious and cultural traditions. Most of the Russian population is concentrated in the European portion of the country, especially in the fertile region surrounding Moscow<\/a>, the capital. Moscow<\/a> and St. Petersburg<\/a> (formerly Leningrad) are the two most important cultural and financial centres in Russia and are among the most picturesque cities in the world. Russians are also populous in Asia, however; beginning in the 17th century, and particularly pronounced throughout much of the 20th century, a steady flow of ethnic Russians and Russian-speaking people moved eastward into Siberia<\/a>, where cities such as Vladivostok<\/a> and Irkutsk<\/a> now flourish.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Russia:<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Russia: administrative divisions<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Administrative divisions of Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia\u2019s climate is extreme, with forbidding winters that have several times famously saved the country from foreign invaders. Although the climate adds a layer of difficulty to daily life, the land is a generous source of crops and materials, including vast reserves of oil, gas, and precious<\/a> metals. That richness of resources has not translated into an easy life for most of the country\u2019s people, however; indeed, much of Russia\u2019s history has been a grim tale of the very wealthy and powerful few ruling over a great mass of their poor and powerless compatriots. Serfdom<\/a> endured well into the modern era; the years of Soviet communist rule (1917\u201391), especially the long dictatorship of Joseph Stalin<\/a>, saw subjugation of a different and more exacting sort.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Britannica Britannica Money <\/a>Why emerging markets might be worth owning in a diversified portfolio<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Russian republic was established immediately after the Russian Revolution of 1917<\/a> and became a union republic in 1922. During the post-World War II era, Russia was a central player in international affairs, locked in a Cold War<\/a> struggle with the United States<\/a>. In 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia joined with several other former Soviet republics to form a loose coalition, the Commonwealth of Independent States<\/a> (CIS). Although the demise<\/a> of Soviet-style communism<\/a> and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union brought profound political and economic changes, including the beginnings of the formation of a large middle class, for much of the postcommunist era Russians had to endure a generally weak economy, high inflation, and a complex of social ills that served to lower life expectancy<\/a> significantly. Despite such profound problems, Russia showed promise of achieving its potential as a world power once again, as if to exemplify a favourite proverb, stated in the 19th century by Austrian statesman Klemens, F\u00fcrst (prince) von Metternich<\/a>: \u201cRussia is never as strong as she appears, and never as weak as she appears.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia can boast a long tradition of excellence in every aspect of the arts and sciences. Prerevolutionary Russian society produced the writings<\/a> and music of such giants of world culture<\/a> as Anton Chekhov<\/a>, Aleksandr Pushkin<\/a>, Leo Tolstoy<\/a>, Nikolay Gogol<\/a>, Fyodor Dostoyevsky<\/a>, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky<\/a>. The 1917 revolution and the changes it brought were reflected in the works of such noted figures as the novelists Maxim Gorky<\/a>, Boris Pasternak<\/a>, and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn<\/a> and the composers Dmitry Shostakovich<\/a> and Sergey Prokofiev<\/a>. And the late Soviet and postcommunist eras witnessed a revival of interest in once-forbidden artists such as the poets Vladimir Mayakovsky<\/a> and Anna Akhmatova<\/a> while ushering in new talents such as the novelist Victor Pelevin<\/a> and the writer and journalist Tatyana Tolstaya, whose celebration of the arrival of winter in St. Petersburg, a beloved event, suggests the resilience<\/a> and stoutheartedness of her people:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Get a Britannica Premium subscription and gain access to exclusive content. Subscribe Now<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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The snow begins to fall in October. People watch for it impatiently, turning repeatedly to look outside. If only it would come! Everyone is tired of the cold rain that taps stupidly on windows and roofs. The houses are so drenched that they seem about to crumble into sand. But then, just as the gloomy sky sinks even lower, there comes the hope that the boring drum of water from the clouds will finally give way to a flurry of\u2026and there it goes: tiny dry grains at first, then an exquisitely carved flake, two, three ornate stars, followed by fat fluffs of snow, then more, more, more\u2014a great store of cotton tumbling down.<\/p>\n<\/blockquote>\n\n\n\n

For the geography and history of the other former Soviet republics, see<\/em> Moldova<\/a>, Estonia<\/a>, Latvia<\/a>, Lithuania<\/a>, Belarus<\/a>, Kazakhstan<\/a>, Kyrgyzstan<\/a>, Tajikistan<\/a>, Turkmenistan<\/a>, Uzbekistan<\/a>, Armenia<\/a>, Azerbaijan<\/a>, Georgia<\/a>, and Ukraine<\/a>. See also<\/em> Union of Soviet Socialist Republics<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Land<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\"Physical<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Physical features of Russia<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\"Western<\/a><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Western Russia<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

typical Russian rural buildings<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Typical wooden buildings in a village in the Central Ural Mountains near Kungur, Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia is bounded to the north and east by the Arctic and Pacific oceans, and it has small frontages in the northwest on the Baltic Sea<\/a> at St. Petersburg<\/a> and at the detached Russian oblast<\/em> (region) of Kaliningrad<\/a> (a part of what was once East Prussia<\/a> annexed<\/a> in 1945), which also abuts Poland<\/a> and Lithuania<\/a>. To the south Russia borders North Korea<\/a>, China<\/a>, Mongolia<\/a>, and Kazakhstan<\/a>, Azerbaijan<\/a>, and Georgia<\/a>. To the southwest and west it borders Ukraine<\/a>, Belarus<\/a>, Latvia<\/a>, and Estonia<\/a>, as well as Finland<\/a> and Norway<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Extending nearly halfway around the Northern Hemisphere and covering much of eastern and northeastern Europe<\/a> and all of northern Asia<\/a>, Russia has a maximum east-west extent of some 5,600 miles (9,000 km) and a north-south width of 1,500 to 2,500 miles (2,500 to 4,000 km). There is an enormous variety of landforms and landscapes, which occur mainly in a series of broad latitudinal belts. Arctic deserts lie in the extreme north, giving way southward to the tundra and then to the forest zones, which cover about half of the country and give it much of its character. South of the forest zone lie the wooded steppe<\/a> and the steppe, beyond which are small sections of semidesert along the northern shore of the Caspian Sea<\/a>. Much of Russia lies at latitudes where the winter cold is intense and where evaporation can barely keep pace<\/a> with the accumulation of moisture, engendering abundant rivers, lakes, and swamps. Permafrost<\/a> covers some 4 million square miles (10 million square km)\u2014an area seven times larger than the drainage basin<\/a> of the Volga River<\/a>, Europe\u2019s longest river\u2014making settlement and road building difficult in vast areas. In the European areas of Russia, the permafrost occurs in the tundra and the forest-tundra zone. In western Siberia permafrost occurs along the Yenisey River<\/a>, and it covers almost all areas east of the river, except for south Kamchatka<\/a> province, Sakhalin Island<\/a>, and Primorsky Kray<\/a> (the Maritime Region).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Relief<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

On the basis of geologic structure and relief, Russia can be divided into two main parts\u2014western and eastern\u2014roughly along the line of the Yenisey River. In the western section, which occupies some two-fifths of Russia\u2019s total area, lowland plains predominate over vast<\/a> areas broken only by low hills and plateaus. In the eastern section the bulk of the terrain is mountainous, although there are some extensive lowlands. Given these topological factors, Russia may be subdivided into six main relief regions: the Kola-Karelian region<\/a>, the Russian Plain<\/a>, the Ural Mountains<\/a>, the West Siberian Plain<\/a>, the Central Siberian Plateau<\/a>, and the mountains of the south and east<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Kola-Karelian region<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Russian botanical garden<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Botanical garden on the Kola Peninsula, Russia<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kola-Karelia<\/a>, the smallest of Russia\u2019s relief regions, lies in the northwestern part of European Russia between the Finnish border and the White Sea<\/a>. Karelia<\/a> is a low, ice-scraped plateau with a maximum elevation of 1,896 feet (578 metres), but for the most part it is below 650 feet (200 metres); low ridges and knolls alternate<\/a> with lake- and marsh-filled hollows. The Kola Peninsula<\/a> is similar, but the small Khibiny mountain<\/a> range rises to nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 metres). Mineral-rich ancient rocks lie at or near the surface in many places.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Russian Plain<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Caucasus Mountains<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Caucasus Mountains in Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Western Russia makes up the largest part of one of the great lowland areas of the world, the Russian Plain<\/a> (also called the East European Plain), which extends into Russia from the western border eastward for 1,000 miles (1,600 km) to the Ural Mountains and from the Arctic Ocean<\/a> more than 1,500 miles (2,400 km) to the Caucasus<\/a> Mountains and the Caspian Sea<\/a>. About half of this vast area lies at elevations of less than 650 feet (200 metres) above sea level<\/a>, and the highest point (in the Valdai Hills<\/a>, northwest of Moscow<\/a>) reaches only 1,125 feet (343 metres). Nevertheless, the detailed topography<\/a> is quite varied. North of the latitude<\/a> on which Moscow lies, features characteristic of lowland glacial deposition<\/a> predominate, and morainic ridges, of which the most pronounced are the Valdai Hills and the Smolensk Upland<\/a>, which rises to 1,050 feet (320 metres), stand out above low, poorly drained hollows interspersed with lakes and marshes. South of Moscow there is a west-east alternation of rolling plateaus and extensive plains. In the west the Central Russian Upland<\/a>, with a maximum elevation of 950 feet (290 metres), separates the lowlands of the upper Dnieper River<\/a> valley from those of the Oka<\/a> and Don<\/a> rivers, beyond which the Volga Hills rise gently to 1,230 feet (375 metres) before descending<\/a> abruptly to the Volga River<\/a>. Small river valleys are sharply incised into these uplands, whereas the major rivers cross the lowlands in broad, shallow floodplains. East of the Volga is the large Caspian Depression<\/a>, parts of which lie more than 90 feet (25 metres) below sea level. The Russian Plain also extends southward through the Azov-Caspian isthmus (in the North Caucasus<\/a> region) to the foot of the Caucasus Mountains, the crest line of which forms the boundary between Russia and the Transcaucasian states of Georgia and Azerbaijan; just inside this border is Mount Elbrus<\/a>, which at 18,510 feet (5,642 metres) is the highest point in Russia. The large Kuban and Kuma plains of the North Caucasus are separated by the Stavropol Upland<\/a> at elevations of 1,000 to 2,000 feet (300 to 600 metres).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Ural Mountains<\/a><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Nurgush Range<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Nurgush Range, Southern Ural Mountains, Russia<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A belt of low mountains and plateaus<\/a> 1,150 to 1,500 feet (350 to 460 metres) high flanks the Ural Mountains<\/a> proper along the eastern edge of the Russian Plain<\/a>. The north-south spine of the Urals extends about 1,300 miles (2,100 km) from the Arctic coast to the border with Kazakhstan<\/a> and is extended an additional 600 miles (1,000 km) into the Arctic Ocean<\/a> by Novaya Zemlya<\/a>, an archipelago that consists of two large islands and several smaller ones. Although the Urals form the traditional boundary between Europe<\/a> and Asia<\/a>, they do not significantly impede movement. The highest peak, Mount Narodnaya<\/a>, reaches 6,217 feet (1,895 metres), but the system is largely composed of a series of broken, parallel ridges with summits<\/a> generally between 3,000 and 5,000 feet (900 and 1,500 metres); several low passes cut through the system, particularly in the central section between Perm<\/a> and Yekaterinburg<\/a>, which carry the main routes from Europe into Siberia<\/a>. Many districts contain mineral-rich rocks.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The West Siberian Plain<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Russia\u2019s most extensive region, the West Siberian Plain, is the most striking single relief feature of the country<\/a> and quite possibly of the world. Covering an area well in excess of 1 million square miles (2.6 million square km)\u2014one-seventh of Russia\u2019s total area\u2014it stretches about 1,200 miles (1,900 km) from the Urals to the Yenisey and 1,500 miles (2,400 km) from the Arctic Ocean to the foothills of the Altai Mountains<\/a>. Only in the extreme south do elevations exceed 650 feet (200 metres), and more than half the plain lies below 330 feet (100 metres). Vast floodplains<\/a> and some of the world\u2019s largest swamps<\/a> are characteristic features, particularly of the plain\u2019s northern half. Slightly higher and drier territory is located south of latitude<\/a> 55\u00b0 N, where the bulk of the region\u2019s population is concentrated.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Central Siberian Plateau<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Occupying most of the area between the Yenisey and Lena<\/a> rivers, the Central Siberian Plateau comprises<\/a> a series of sharply dissected plateau surfaces ranging in elevation from 1,000 to 2,300 feet (300 to 700 metres). Toward its northern edge the Putoran Mountains<\/a> rise to 5,581 feet (1,701 metres). The plateau\u2019s southern side is bounded by the Eastern Sayan<\/a> and Baikal (Baikalia) mountains; to the north it descends to the North Siberian Lowland<\/a>, an eastward extension of the West Siberian Plain. Farther north the Byrranga Mountains<\/a> reach 3,760 feet (1,146 metres) on the Taymyr (Taimyr) Peninsula<\/a>, which extends into the Arctic Ocean. On its eastern side the Central Siberian Plateau gives way to the low-lying Central Yakut Lowland.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The mountains of the south and east<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Russia\u2019s remaining territory, to the south and east, constitutes<\/a> about one-fourth of the country\u2019s total area and is dominated by a complex series of high mountain systems. Although these mountains, which form part of the barrier that encloses Russia on its southern and eastern sides, are of varied geologic origin, they may be considered a single major relief region.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The mountain barrier is relatively narrow in the section to the west of Lake Baikal<\/a>. The Altai Mountains<\/a>, which reach a maximum elevation of 14,783 feet (4,506 metres), lie on Russia\u2019s borders with Kazakhstan and Mongolia; they are succeeded eastward by the V-shaped system of the Western Sayan<\/a> and Eastern Sayan mountains, which rise to 10,240 and 11,453 feet (3,121 and 3,491 metres), respectively, and which enclose the high Tyva Basin. Subsidiary ranges extend northward, enclosing the Kuznetsk<\/a> and Minusinsk basins.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The area around Lake Baikal<\/a> is one of massive block faulting<\/a> in which major faults separate high plateaus and mountain ranges from deep valleys and basins. The scale of relief in this area is indicated by the fact that the floor of the lake at its deepest is more than 3,800 feet (1,160 metres) below sea level<\/a> (the total depth of the lake is 5,315 feet [1,620 metres]), while the mountains rising from its western shore reach elevations of 8,400 feet (2,560 metres) above sea level, a vertical difference of some 12,200 feet (3,700 metres).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Mountain ranges fan out east of Lake Baikal to occupy most of the territory between the Lena River and the Pacific coast. Conventionally, this section is divided into northeastern and southeastern Siberia along the line of the Stanovoy Range<\/a>. Rising to 7,913 feet (2,412 metres), the Stanovoy runs some 400 miles (640 km) eastward to the Pacific coast and separates the Lena<\/a> and Amur drainage systems, which flow to the Arctic and Pacific oceans, respectively. Branching northeastward from the eastern end of the Stanovoy, the Dzhugdzhur Range<\/a> rises to 6,253 feet (1,906 metres) along the coast, and its line is continued toward the Chukchi Peninsula by the Kolyma Mountains<\/a>. Major ranges branching off this chain to the northwest include the Verkhoyansk Mountains<\/a>, which rise to 7,838 feet (2,389 metres) immediately east of the Lena, and the Chersky Range<\/a>, which reaches a maximum elevation of 10,325 feet (3,147 metres). North of this system the low-lying, swampy Kolyma Lowland fronts the Arctic Ocean, extending for some 460 miles (740 km) to the Chersky Range.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Kraternaya Bay<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The summit of a partially submerged volcano forms the outline of Kraternaya Bay, Yankich Island, in the Kuril Islands of Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

A narrow lowland corridor from the Sea of Okhotsk<\/a> to the Bering Sea<\/a> separates these complex fold-mountain systems from the Kamchatka-Kuril<\/a> region, where the Koryak<\/a> and Sredinny mountains rise to 8,405 and 11,880 feet (2,562 and 3,621 metres), respectively, forming a northeast-southwest chain that extends along the Pacific-rimmed Kamchatka Peninsula<\/a>. The peninsula contains numerous volcanic<\/a> peaks (many of which are still active), including Klyuchevskaya Volcano<\/a>, which at 15,584 feet (4,750 metres) is the highest point in far-eastern Russia; several other volcanoes rise well above 10,000 feet (3,050 metres). This volcanic zone, part of the great circum-Pacific ring of seismic activity<\/a>, continues southeastward through the Kuril Islands<\/a> chain and into Japan<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Southeastern Siberia contains many high mountain ranges and extensive<\/a> lowland plains. The most prominent mountains are the Badzhalsky Mountains, which rise to 8,661 feet (2,640 metres), to the west of the lower Amur<\/a>, and the Sikhote-Alin<\/a>, which reach 6,814 feet (2,077 metres), between the Amur-Ussuri lowlands and the Pacific.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sakhalin Island<\/a> is separated from the Siberian mainland by the Tatar Strait<\/a>, which is only about 4 miles (6 km) wide at its narrowest point. Some 600 miles (970 km) from north to south but only 25 to 95 miles (40 to 150 km) across, Sakhalin<\/a> comprises a lowland plain in the north and, in the south, the parallel Eastern and Western Sakhalin mountain ranges, which reach 5,279 and 4,347 feet (1,609 and 1,325 metres), respectively.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Drainage<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Rivers<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Angara River<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Angara River at Irkutsk, Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The vast<\/a> lowland plains that dominate the Russian landscape carry some of the world\u2019s longest rivers. Five main drainage basins may be distinguished: the Arctic, Pacific, Baltic, Black Sea, and Caspian. Of these basins the most extensive by far is the Arctic<\/a>, which lies mostly in Siberia but also includes the northern part of the Russian Plain. The greater part of this basin is drained by three gigantic rivers: the Ob<\/a> (2,268 miles [3,650 km], which with its main tributary, the Irtysh<\/a>, extends for a continuous 3,362 miles [5,410 km]), the Yenisey<\/a> (2,540 miles [4,090 km]), and the Lena<\/a> (2,734 miles [4,400 km]). Their catchments cover a total area in excess of 3 million square miles (8 million square km) in Siberia north of the Stanovoy Range, and their combined<\/a> discharge into the Arctic averages 1,750,000 cubic feet (50,000 cubic metres) per second. Smaller, but still impressive, rivers make up the remainder of the Arctic drainage: in the European section these include the Northern Dvina<\/a> (with its tributaries the Vychegda<\/a> and Sukhona<\/a>) and the Pechora<\/a>, and in Siberia the Indigirka<\/a> and Kolyma<\/a>. The Siberian rivers provide transport arteries from the interior to the Arctic sea route, although these are blocked by ice for long periods every year. They have extremely gentle gradients\u2014the Ob, for example, falls only 650 feet (200 metres) in more than 1,250 miles (2,010 km)\u2014causing them to meander slowly across immense floodplains. Owing to their northward flow, the upper reaches thaw before the lower parts, and floods occur over vast areas, which lead to the development of huge swamps<\/a>. The Vasyuganye Swamp at the Ob-Irtysh confluence<\/a> covers some 19,000 square miles (49,000 square km).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The rest of Siberia, some 1.8 million square miles (4.7 million square km), is drained into the Pacific. In the north, where the watershed is close to the coast, numerous small rivers descend abruptly from the mountains, but the bulk of southeastern Siberia is drained by the large Amur<\/a> system. Over much of its 1,755-mile (2,824-km) length, the Amur forms the boundary that divides Russia and China<\/a>. The Ussuri<\/a>, one of the Amur\u2019s tributaries, forms another considerable length of the border.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Three drainage basins<\/a> cover European Russia south of the Arctic basin. The Dnieper<\/a>, of which only the upper reaches are in Russia, and the 1,162-mile- (1,870-km-) long Don<\/a> flow south to the Black Sea<\/a>, and a small northwestern section drains to the Baltic<\/a>. The longest European river is the Volga<\/a>. Rising in the Valdai Hills<\/a> northwest of Moscow<\/a>, it follows a course of 2,193 miles (3,530 km) to the Caspian Sea<\/a>. Outranked only by the Siberian rivers, the Volga drains an area of 533,000 square miles (1,380,000 square km). Separated only by short overland portages and supplemented by several canals, the rivers of the Russian Plain have long been important transport arteries; indeed, the Volga system carries two-thirds of all Russian waterway traffic.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Lakes<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Bolshiye Koty on Lake Baikal<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Harbour of Bolshiye Koty on Lake Baikal, southeastern Siberia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Visit Lake Baikal, a diverse and fecund freshwater ecosystem, home of the Baikal seal<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Overview of Lake Baikal in Siberia, Russia, the deepest and oldest lake in the world.See all videos for this article<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Russia contains some two million fresh- and saltwater lakes. In the European section the largest lakes are Ladoga<\/a> and Onega<\/a> in the northwest, with surface areas of 6,830 (inclusive of islands) and 3,753 square miles (17,690 and 9,720 square km), respectively; Peipus<\/a>, with an area of 1,370 square miles (3,550 square km), on the Estonian border; and the Rybinsk Reservoir<\/a> on the Volga north of Moscow. Narrow lakes 100 to 200 miles (160 to 320 km) long are located behind barrages<\/a> (dams) on the Don, Volga, and Kama. In Siberia similar artificial lakes are located on the upper Yenisey and its tributary the Angara<\/a>, where the 340-mile- (550-km-) long Bratsk Reservoir<\/a> is among the world\u2019s largest. All these are dwarfed by Lake Baikal<\/a>, the largest body of fresh water in the world. Some 395 miles (636 km) long and with an average width of 30 miles (50 km), Baikal has a surface area of 12,200 square miles (31,500 square km) and a maximum depth of 5,315 feet (1,620 metres). (See<\/em> Researcher\u2019s Note: Maximum depth of Lake Baikal<\/a>.)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

There are innumerable smaller lakes found mainly in the ill-drained low-lying parts of the Russian and West Siberian plains, especially in their more northerly parts. Some of these reach considerable size, notably Beloye (White) Lake and Lakes Top, Vyg<\/a>, and Ilmen<\/a>, each occupying more than 400 square miles (1,000 square km) in the European northwest, and Lake Chany<\/a> (770 square miles [1,990 square km]) in southwestern Siberia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Climate of Russia<\/h1>\n\n\n\n

Several basic factors determine Russia\u2019s variable climates. The country\u2019s<\/a> vast size and compact shape\u2014the great bulk of the land is more than 250 miles (400 km) from the sea, while certain parts lie as much as 1,500 miles (2,400 km) away\u2014produce a dominance of continental<\/a> regimes. The country\u2019s northerly latitude<\/a> ensures that these are cold continental regimes\u2014only southwestern Russia (the North Caucasus<\/a> region and the lower Don and Volga basins), small sections of southern Siberia<\/a>, and the maritime region of southeastern Siberia are below latitude 50\u00b0 N, and more than half the federation is north of latitude 60\u00b0 N. The great mountain barriers to the south and east prevent the ingress of ameliorating<\/a> influences from the Indian and Pacific oceans, but the absence of relief barriers on the western and northern sides leaves the country open to Atlantic and Arctic influences. In effect there are only two seasons, winter and summer; spring and autumn are brief periods of rapid change from one extreme to the other.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Atmospheric pressure and winds<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The cooling of the Eurasian landmass in winter leads to the development of an intense high-pressure cell over the country\u2019s interior; mean January pressures range above 1,040 millibars along the southern boundary of Siberia, from which a ridge of high pressure runs westward along Russia\u2019s borders with Kazakhstan<\/a> and Ukraine<\/a>. Movement of air outward from these high-pressure zones ensures that winds are mainly from the southwest in European Russia, from the south over much of Siberia, and from the northwest along the Pacific coast. This situation reverses itself in summer, when the landmass heats up; low pressure<\/a> develops over the Asian interior, and air moves inward\u2014from the northwest in the European section, from the north in Siberia, and from the southeast along the Pacific.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Temperature<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The air movements even out the north-south contrasts in winter temperatures, which might be expected to occur as a result of latitude. Thus, on the Russian Plain<\/a> isotherms have a north-south trend<\/a>, and temperatures at each latitude decline from the west toward a cold pole in northeastern Siberia. From west to east within a narrow latitudinal range, the January mean is 18 \u00b0F (\u22128 \u00b0C) at St. Petersburg<\/a>, \u221217 \u00b0F (\u221227 \u00b0C) at Turukhansk in the West Siberian Plain<\/a>, \u221246 \u00b0F (\u221243 \u00b0C) at Yakutsk<\/a>, and \u221258 \u00b0F (\u221250 \u00b0C) at Verkhoyansk<\/a>. Along the Mongolian border the average temperature is only a degree or two above that along the Arctic coast 1,500 miles (2,400 km) farther north. Outblowing winds also depress temperatures along the Pacific coast; Vladivostok<\/a>, at the same latitude as the French Riviera, has a January mean of 7 \u00b0F (\u221214 \u00b0C). In summer, temperatures are more closely connected with latitude; July mean temperatures range from 39 \u00b0F (4 \u00b0C) in the Arctic islands to 68 \u00b0F (20 \u00b0C) along the country\u2019s southern border. Extreme temperatures diverge<\/a> greatly from these means. The world\u2019s lowest minimum January temperature (outside Antarctica) occurred at Oymyakon, southeast of Verkhoyansk, where a temperature of \u221296 \u00b0F (\u221271 \u00b0C) was recorded, while July maxima above 100 \u00b0F (38 \u00b0C) have occurred at several stations. The net result is a vast seasonal range that increases toward the country\u2019s interior; for example, January and July means differ by 52 \u00b0F (29 \u00b0C) at Moscow<\/a>, 76 \u00b0F (42 \u00b0C) at Turukhansk, and 115 \u00b0F (64 \u00b0C) at Yakutsk. Extreme winter cold is characteristic<\/a> of most of Russia; the frost-free period exceeds six months only in the North Caucasus and varies with latitude from five to three months in the European section to three months to less than two in Siberia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Precipitation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The main characteristics of precipitation throughout Russia are the modest to low total amounts and the pronounced summer maximum. Across the European plains and western Siberia, total precipitation declines from northwest to southeast. In these regions, except in a few places close to the Baltic, precipitation generally remains below 24 inches (600 mm), falling from 21 inches (533 mm) at Moscow to about 8 inches (203 mm) along the border with Kazakhstan. In eastern Siberia, totals are generally less than 16 inches (406 mm) and as little as 5 inches (127 mm) along the Arctic coast. Precipitation increases again along the Pacific (24 inches [600 mm] in Vladivostok), where the moisture-laden onshore summer monsoon brings significant precipitation. Amounts vary with elevation; the higher parts of the Urals receive more than 28 inches (711 mm), and the mountains of Kamchatka<\/a> province and the Sikhote-Alin<\/a> receive well over 40 inches (1,015 mm) annually. Snow is a pronounced feature for the entire country, and its depth and duration<\/a> have important effects on agriculture. The duration of snow cover varies with both latitude and altitude, ranging from 40 to 200 days across the Russian Plain and from 120 to 250 days in Siberia. Britannica QuizExploring Russian History<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Soils and plant and animal life<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Why is the village of Shoyna sinking in sand?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Learn about Shoyna, a former port on the White Sea that is sinking into the sand in Nenets autonomous okrug<\/em>, Russia. See all videos for this article<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Climate, soils, vegetation, and animal life are closely interrelated, and variations among these within Russia form a series of broad latitudinal environmental belts that sweep across the country\u2019s plains and plateaus from the western border to the Lena River<\/a>. In the mountain zones of the south and east, the pattern is more complex because elevation rather than latitude is the dominant factor, and there are striking changes over relatively short distances. Within Russia there are six main environmental belts (some with subdivisions): Arctic desert, tundra, taiga, mixed and deciduous forest<\/a>, wooded steppe, and steppe<\/a>. Forests of various kinds account for more than two-fifths of Russia\u2019s total land area. The endangered Siberian tiger<\/a> inhabiting<\/a> pockets of forest in the Primorye<\/a> and Khabarovsk<\/a> territories of far-eastern Russia has been the focus of intense conservation efforts, both in and outside of the country.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Arctic desert<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Arctic desert\u2014confined to the islands of Franz Josef Land<\/a>, much of the Novaya Zemlya<\/a> and Severnaya Zemlya<\/a> archipelagoes, and the New Siberian Islands<\/a>\u2014is completely barren land with little or no vegetation. Considerable areas are ice-covered.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tundra<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Nearly one-tenth of Russian territory is tundra<\/a>, a treeless, marshy plain. Occupying a narrow coastal belt in the extreme north of the European Plain<\/a>, the tundra widens to a maximum of about 300 miles (500 km) in Siberia. Tundra soils are extremely poor. The moisture surplus caused by low temperatures results in the area\u2019s being poorly drained, and the limited and discontinuous vegetation cover provides little organic matter; moreover, this matter decays slowly, and the soils are highly acidic. Tundra soils are frozen for much of the year, and during the summer thaw drainage is inhibited<\/a> by the presence of permafrost beneath the thawed surface layer. A typical tundra soil has a shallow surface layer of raw humus, beneath which there is a horizon (soil layer) of gley (sticky, clayey soil) resting on the permafrost. Vegetation changes from north to south, and three subdivisions are recognized: Arctic tundra<\/a>, with much bare ground and extensive areas of mosses and lichens; shrubby tundra, with mosses, lichens, herbaceous plants, dwarf Arctic birch, and shrub willow; and wooded tundra, with more extensive areas of stunted birch, larch, and spruce. There are considerable stretches of sphagnum bog. Apart from reindeer, which are herded by the indigenous<\/a> population, the main animal species are the Arctic foxes, musk oxen<\/a>, beavers, lemmings, snowy owls, and ptarmigan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Taiga<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

birch trees and conifers, West Siberian Plain<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

A stand of birch trees and conifers in the taiga of the West Siberian Plain, near Nizhnevartovsk, Russia.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

South of the tundra lies the vast taiga<\/a> (boreal forest) zone, the largest of the environmental regions. It occupies the Russian and West Siberian plains north of latitude 56\u00b0\u201358\u00b0 N together with most of the territory east of the Yenisey River<\/a>. The western taiga, where the climate is less extreme, is often distinguished from the eastern taiga beyond the Yenisey. In the western section forests of spruce and fir in moister areas alternate<\/a> with shrubs and grasses interspersed with pine on lighter soils. These species also are present in the east, but the larch becomes dominant there. Only small areas have been cleared for agriculture, mainly in the European part, and the taiga remains the world\u2019s largest timber reserve. However, coniferous forest<\/a> is not continuous; there are large stands of birch<\/a>, alder<\/a>, and willow<\/a> and, in poorly drained areas, huge stretches of swamp and peat bog. The taiga<\/a> is rich in fur-bearing animals, such as sables, squirrels, marten, foxes, and ermines, and it is also home to many elks, bears, muskrat, and wolves.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Throughout the taiga zone the dominant soil type is the podzol<\/a>, a product of the intense leaching characteristic of this area of moisture surplus. The forest vegetation provides a surface layer of highly acidic raw humus that decomposes slowly, producing humic acids. Percolating<\/a> downward, acidic groundwater<\/a> removes iron and calcium compounds<\/a> from the upper layers, which, as a result, are pale in colour. Soluble materials are redeposited at lower levels, often resulting in an iron-rich hardpan that impedes the drainage of the upper horizons, which leads to the formation of gley podzols. Applications of lime and fertilizer are required for successful agriculture.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Mixed<\/a> and deciduous forest<\/a><\/h1>\n\n\n\n

As conditions become warmer with decreasing latitude<\/a>, deciduous species appear in greater numbers and eventually become dominant. The triangular mixed and deciduous forest belt is widest along Russia\u2019s western border and narrows toward the Urals. Oak and spruce are the main trees, but there also are growths of ash, aspen, birch<\/a>, elm, hornbeam, maple, and pine. East of the Urals as far as the Altai Mountains<\/a>, a narrow belt of birch and aspen woodland separates the taiga<\/a> from the wooded steppe. Much of the mixed and deciduous forest<\/a> zone has been cleared for agriculture, particularly in the European section. As a result, the wildlife is less plentiful, but roe deer<\/a>, wolves, foxes, and squirrels are common. Soils also show a north-south gradation. As the moisture surplus<\/a> diminishes, leaching becomes less intense, and true podzols give way to gray and brown forest soils, which are less acidic and have a much greater organic content and a higher natural fertility. A second zone of mixed forest occurs in the Amur-Ussuri-Zeya lowlands of southeastern Siberia and includes Asiatic species of oak, hornbeam, elm, and hazel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Wooded steppe and steppe<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The southward succession is continued by the wooded steppe, which, as its name suggests, is transitional between the forest zone and the steppe proper. Forests of oak and other species (now largely cleared for agriculture) in the European section and birch and aspen across the West Siberian Plain<\/a> alternate with areas of open grassland that become increasingly extensive toward the south. The wooded steppe eventually gives way to the true steppe, which occupies a belt some 200 miles (320 km) across and extends from southern Ukraine<\/a> through northern Kazakhstan<\/a> to the Altai. Russia has a relatively small share of the Eurasian Steppe<\/a>, mainly in the North Caucasus and lower Volga regions, though pockets of wooded steppe and steppe also occur in basins among the mountains of southern Siberia<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The natural steppe vegetation is composed mainly of turf grasses such as bunchgrass, fescue, bluegrass<\/a>, and agropyron. Perennial<\/a> grasses<\/a>, mosses, and lichens<\/a> also grow on the steppe, and drought-resistant species are common in the south, where the sequence continues in Kazakhstan through dry steppe and semidesert to the great deserts of Central Asia<\/a>. Woodland is by no means wholly absent, occurring in damper areas in river valleys and depressions. Much of the steppe vegetation, particularly in the west, has been replaced by grain cultivation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The absence of natural shelter on the open steppe has conditioned the kind of animals that inhabit it. Typical rodents of the zone include the marmot and other such burrowing animals and various mouse species. Skunks, foxes, and wolves are common, and antelope inhabit the south. The most common birds are bustards, eagles, kestrels, larks, and gray partridge.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Chernozem<\/a> (black earth) is the distinctive soil of the steppe, taking its name from the very dark upper horizon\u2014often more than three feet (one metre) thick\u2014which is rich in humus derived from the thick grass<\/a> cover. Winter frost<\/a> and summer drought inhibit<\/a> the decomposition of organic matter, and high evaporation<\/a> rates prevent leaching<\/a>; as a result, humus accumulates. Calcium<\/a> compounds<\/a> are leached downward by the spring snowmelt but are drawn upward in summer and become concentrated in a lime-rich horizon beneath the humus<\/a> layer. Low acidity and a high humus content combine to give the chernozems<\/a> a high natural fertility, which has helped make the steppe the country\u2019s<\/a> main source of grain.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

All information come from Encyclopedia Britannica<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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